Class 9 Social Science-History Chapter 4: Forest Society and Colonialism

1. Short Notes for Revision

  • Forest Diversity and Products: Forests provide paper, furniture, spices, dyes, gum, honey, coffee, tea, rubber, medicines, bamboo, fuelwood, grass, fruits. Amazon/Western Ghats: Up to 500 plant species per patch. Sal forests in Chhattisgarh dense with varied heights.
  • Deforestation Overview: 1700-1995: 13.9 million sq km (9.3% world area) cleared for industry, cultivation, pastures, fuelwood. In India: One-sixth land cultivated in 1600, half now.
  • Causes of Deforestation: Agricultural expansion due to population growth. British encouraged for commercial crops (jute, sugar, wheat, cotton). Sleepers for railways: 1,760-2,000 per mile, 35,000 trees/year in Madras 1850s. Shipbuilding: Oak shortage in England led to Indian timber export. Plantations: Cleared for tea, coffee, rubber.
  • Rise of Commercial Forestry: Dietrich Brandis: First Inspector General 1864. Indian Forest Act 1865, amended 1878 (categories: reserved, protected, village), 1927. Scientific forestry: Cut diverse forests, plant single species (teak, sal) in rows. Imperial Forest Research Institute Dehradun 1906.
  • Impact on Forest Dwellers: Banned shifting cultivation (jhum, podu, lading), hunting, grazing, collecting produce. Became illegal; fines, bribes by guards. Displaced communities; some ‘criminal tribes’ forced to factories/mines.
  • New Trades and Employments: Adivasis traded via Banjaras (hides, horns, silk, ivory). Colonial monopoly to European firms. Hired locals for logging but low pay. In Assam: Santhals, Oraons, Gonds recruited for tea plantations, poor conditions.
  • Rebellion in Forests – Bastar 1910: In Chhattisgarh; communities (Maria, Muria Gonds, Dhurwas). Against 1905 reservation (2/3 forest), increased rents, free labor. Messages via mango boughs, chillies, arrows. Led by Gunda Dhur. Suppressed after 3 months; reservation halved.
  • Forest Transformations in Java: Kalangs: Skilled cutters. Dutch laws restricted access. Blandongdiensten: Free labor for rent exemption. Samin’s Challenge 1890: Surontiko Samin questioned state ownership; non-violent protest (lying on land, refusing taxes).
  • War and Deforestation: WWI/WWII: Abandoned plans, reckless felling for war needs. Java: Dutch scorched earth vs Japanese; villagers expanded cultivation.
  • New Developments in Forestry: Post-1980s: Conservation priority; involve locals. Sacred groves (sarnas, kan, rai) protected. World Bank proposal 1970s for pine plantations stopped by environmentalists.

2. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

  1. What percentage of world’s forest area was cleared between 1700-1995? A) 5.3% B) 9.3% C) 13.9% D) 19.3%
  2. Which crop plantations led to forest clearing in colonial India? A) Rice and maize B) Tea, coffee, rubber C) Wheat and barley D) Millets and pulses
  3. Who was the first Inspector General of Forests in India? A) Surontiko Samin B) Dietrich Brandis C) Gunda Dhur D) Alluri Sitarama Raju
  4. The Indian Forest Act was first enacted in: A) 1865 B) 1878 C) 1927 D) 1906
  5. In scientific forestry, forests were replaced with: A) Diverse species B) Single type plantations C) Grasslands D) Wetlands
  6. Shifting cultivation is also known as: A) Commercial farming B) Jhum in India C) Scientific forestry D) Monoculture
  7. Which forests had no rights for villagers? A) Protected B) Village C) Reserved D) Sacred
  8. Bastar rebellion occurred in: A) 1905 B) 1910 C) 1927 D) 1947
  9. In Java, Kalangs were skilled: A) Farmers B) Forest cutters C) Traders D) Rebels
  10. Blandongdiensten system involved: A) Free timber B) Free labor for rent exemption C) Tax on forests D) Hunting rights
  11. Samin’s Challenge was against: A) Hunting bans B) State forest ownership C) Railway expansion D) Tea plantations
  12. During wars, forests were affected by: A) Increased protection B) Reckless felling C) Community control D) Sacred groves
  13. Sacred groves in India are known as: A) Blandongdiensten B) Sarnas, kan, rai C) Jhum fields D) Reserved forests
  14. World Bank proposal in 1970s for Bastar was: A) Tea plantations B) Tropical pine for pulp C) Rubber estates D) Sal conservation
  15. Banjaras were nomadic: A) Cultivators B) Traders C) Hunters D) Loggers
  16. In Bastar, villages respect: A) Earth, river, forest spirits B) Colonial laws C) Railway sleepers D) Tea estates
  17. Gunda Dhur was leader in: A) Java rebellion B) Bastar rebellion C) Samin movement D) Santhal uprising
  18. Dutch in Java followed: A) Scientific forestry B) Shifting cultivation C) Scorched earth policy D) Sacred groves
  19. Post-1980s forestry focus: A) Timber collection B) Conservation with locals C) Railway expansion D) Hunting rewards
  20. Number of sleepers per mile of railway: A) 500-700 B) 1,760-2,000 C) 3,000-4,000 D) 5,000-6,000

Answer Key: 1-B, 2-B, 3-B, 4-A, 5-B, 6-B, 7-C, 8-B, 9-B, 10-B, 11-B, 12-B, 13-B, 14-B, 15-B, 16-A, 17-B, 18-C, 19-B, 20-B

3. Very Short Answer Type Questions (VSAQs)

  1. What is deforestation? Answer: Disappearance of forests due to clearing for various uses.
  2. Name two causes of deforestation in colonial India. Answer: Agricultural expansion and railway sleepers.
  3. Who invited Dietrich Brandis to India? Answer: British colonial government.
  4. What is scientific forestry? Answer: Cutting diverse forests, planting single species in rows.
  5. Name three forest categories under 1878 Act. Answer: Reserved, protected, village forests.
  6. What is shifting cultivation? Answer: Cutting/burning forest patches, cultivating, then leaving fallow.
  7. Why was hunting restricted? Answer: To preserve forests for timber; locals punished for poaching.
  8. When was Bastar rebellion? Answer: 1910.
  9. Who led Samin’s Challenge? Answer: Surontiko Samin.
  10. What is blandongdiensten? Answer: Dutch system of free labor for rent exemption in Java.
  11. How did wars affect forests? Answer: Reckless felling for war needs; abandoned plans.
  12. Name a sacred grove in India. Answer: Sarnas or kan.
  13. What proposal was stopped in Bastar 1970s? Answer: World Bank’s tropical pine plantations.
  14. Who traded forest products pre-colonial? Answer: Adivasi communities via Banjaras.
  15. What was Gunda Dhur’s role? Answer: Leader in Bastar rebellion.

4. Short Answer Type Questions (SAQs)

  1. Explain two causes of deforestation. Answer: Population growth led to agricultural expansion, clearing forests. British needed timber for ships, causing oak shortage in England, so exported from India.
  2. Describe scientific forestry. Answer: Introduced by Brandis; natural diverse forests cut, replaced with single species like teak/sal in straight rows for easy management. Aimed at timber production.
  3. How did Forest Acts impact dwellers? Answer: Divided forests into reserved (no access), protected, village. Banned shifting cultivation, grazing, hunting; locals faced fines, bribes, displacement.
  4. What were new trades in forests? Answer: Colonial government gave monopoly to European firms for products like hides, ivory. Locals hired for logging but on poor terms; some communities labeled criminal.
  5. Outline Bastar rebellion. Answer: 1910 against forest reservation, rents, labor. Messages via symbols; looted bazaars. Suppressed by British; reservation reduced after.
  6. Explain Samin’s Challenge. Answer: Surontiko Samin questioned state forest ownership, arguing state didn’t create nature. Followers refused taxes, lay on land during surveys; spread by 1907.
  7. How did wars cause deforestation? Answer: WWI/WWII abandoned management plans; increased felling for war. In Java, Dutch burned logs to deny Japanese; villagers expanded farms.
  8. Discuss new forestry developments. Answer: Post-1980s, focus on conservation over timber. Involved locals in management; protected sacred groves. Stopped projects like pine plantations in Bastar.
  9. Why was shifting cultivation banned? Answer: Seen as harmful; prevented tree growth for timber. Fires risked valuable wood; made tax calculation hard as cultivators moved.
  10. How did hunting change under colonial rule? Answer: Locals banned from hunting; became poaching. British rewarded killing tigers/wolves as threats; later sport hunting led to species decline.
  11. What was blandongdiensten system? Answer: Dutch exempted villages from rent if provided free labor/buffaloes for logging. Restricted cultivation rights; aimed at timber extraction.
  12. Explain Kalangs’ role in Java. Answer: Skilled forest cutters, shifting cultivators. Divided between kingdoms in 1755; resisted Dutch control by attacking fort in 1770.
  13. How did plantations cause deforestation? Answer: Cleared natural forests for tea, coffee, rubber to meet European demand. Given to European planters at cheap rates by colonial government.
  14. What were impacts on nomadic communities? Answer: Restricted grazing, hunting; some like Korava labeled criminal tribes. Forced to factories/mines; lost traditional livelihoods.
  15. Why did locals benefit during Java war? Answer: Dutch scorched earth left forests open; Japanese forced cutting. Villagers expanded cultivation; hard for post-war service to reclaim land.

5. Long Answer Type Questions (LAQs)

  1. Analyze causes of deforestation in colonial India. Answer: Population rise from 1600 increased cultivation needs, clearing one-sixth to half land area. British promoted commercial crops like jute, cotton, expanding farms. Oak shortage in England for ships led to Indian timber export, felling vast areas. Railways from 1850s needed 1,760-2,000 sleepers/mile, cutting 35,000 trees/year in Madras. Plantations for tea, coffee, rubber cleared forests, given cheaply to Europeans. Overall, systematic colonial exploitation for industry/war accelerated loss.
  2. Explain rise of commercial forestry and its features. Answer: British worried about reckless felling; invited Dietrich Brandis 1864 as Inspector General. Set up Indian Forest Service, Act 1865 (amended 1878, 1927). Divided into reserved (timber only, no local rights), protected, village. Scientific forestry replaced diverse forests with single species plantations like teak/sal in rows for easy harvest. Imperial Research Institute Dehradun 1906 trained officials. Aimed at sustained timber but ignored local needs, leading to conflicts.
  3. Discuss impacts of forest laws on dwellers. Answer: Laws banned shifting cultivation, vital for food in Asia (jhum in India). Restricted grazing, hunting, collecting produce; acts became illegal with fines/jail. Displaced communities; some forced to low-wage logging/plantations. Women worried about fuelwood collection. Nomads like Banjaras lost trade; ‘criminal tribes’ labeled, livelihoods destroyed. Led to rebellions like Bastar 1910, showing resistance to colonial control over resources.
  4. Describe Bastar rebellion and outcomes. Answer: In 1910, Bastar communities (Gonds, Dhurwas) rebelled against 1905 reservation reserving two-thirds forest, banning access, increasing rents, demanding free labor. Believed land from Earth, respected spirits. Messages via mango boughs, chillies invited unity. Led by Gunda Dhur; looted bazaars, attacked officials. British suppressed with troops, flogging; took 3 months. Victory: Reservation suspended, area halved. Highlights adivasi resistance shaping policy.
  5. Compare forest management in India and Java. Answer: Both British/Dutch introduced scientific forestry, clearing diverse forests for single species timber. Acts restricted local access, banned shifting cultivation. India: Reserved forests no rights; Java: Blandongdiensten forced labor. Rebellions: Bastar 1910 against reservation; Java Samin’s 1890 non-violent challenge to ownership. Wars increased felling; post-colonial, both shifted to conservation with locals. Similar colonial exploitation for ships/railways, impacting communities.
  6. Evaluate war’s role in deforestation. Answer: WWI/WWII abandoned working plans; forests cut recklessly for war needs like ships, supplies. India: Free felling to meet British demands. Java: Dutch scorched earth burned logs to deny Japanese; Japanese exploited for industries. Villagers expanded farms amid chaos; post-war, hard to reclaim. Accelerated global loss; showed forests as strategic resources. Environmentalists later argued for protection over exploitation.
  7. Analyze new forestry developments post-1980s. Answer: Governments realized scientific forestry caused conflicts; shifted to conservation as goal. Involved communities in management, recognizing traditional knowledge. India: Protected sacred groves (sarnas, kan) by villages. Stopped World Bank pine project in Bastar 1970s due to protests. Asia/Africa: Similar trends, balancing needs with sustainability. Highlights shift from colonial exclusion to inclusive policies, though challenges remain in implementation.

6. Source-Based / Case-Based Assessment Questions

Source Extract: (From textbook on deforestation causes) In 1600, approximately one-sixth of India’s landmass was under cultivation. Now that figure has gone up to about half. As population increased over the centuries and the demand for food went up, peasants extended the boundaries of cultivation, clearing forests and breaking new land. In the colonial period, cultivation expanded rapidly for a variety of reasons. First, the British directly encouraged the production of commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat and cotton.

Questions:

  1. What fraction of India’s land was cultivated in 1600?
  2. Why did cultivation expand?
  3. Name two commercial crops encouraged by British.
  4. How did this lead to deforestation?
  5. Analyze colonial role.

Answer Key:

  1. One-sixth.
  2. Population growth, food demand.
  3. Jute, sugar (or wheat, cotton).
  4. Cleared forests for farms.
  5. Promoted commercial crops for industry, accelerating clearing.

Source Extract: (Source A on uncultivated land) The idea that uncultivated land had to be taken over and improved was popular with colonisers everywhere in the world. It was an argument that justified conquest. In 1896 the American writer, Richard Harding, wrote on the Honduras in Central America: ‘There is no more interesting question of the present day than that of what is to be done with the world’s land which is lying unimproved; whether it shall go to the great power that is willing to turn it to account, or remain with its original owner, who fails to understand its value.’

Questions:

  1. What idea justified conquest?
  2. Who wrote the quote?
  3. What example is given?
  4. How did this view affect forests?
  5. Link to India.
  6. Critical analysis.

Answer Key:

  1. Improving uncultivated land.
  2. Richard Harding.
  3. Honduras in Central America.
  4. Cleared for cultivation, plantations.
  5. British saw forests as unproductive, cleared for crops.
  6. Ignored local uses, imposed commercial value.

Source Extract: (From Box 1 on Australia) The absence of cultivation in a place does not mean the land was uninhabited. In Australia, when the white settlers landed, they claimed that the continent was empty or terra nullius. In fact, they were guided through the landscape by aboriginal tracks, and led by aboriginal guides. The different aboriginal communities in Australia had clearly demarcated territories.

Questions:

  1. What is terra nullius?
  2. Who claimed Australia empty?
  3. How were settlers guided?
  4. What did aboriginals have?
  5. Relate to deforestation.

Answer Key:

  1. Empty land.
  2. White settlers.
  3. Aboriginal tracks/guides.
  4. Demarcated territories.
  5. Colonizers ignored indigenous use, cleared lands.

Source Extract: (Source B on railway sleepers) ‘The new line to be constructed was the Indus Valley Railway between Multan and Sukkur, a distance of nearly 300 miles. At the rate of 2000 sleepers per mile this would require 600,000 sleepers… The locomotives would use wood fuel… The fuel from the tamarisk and Jhand forests of Sind and the Punjab.’

Questions:

  1. What railway line mentioned?
  2. Sleepers needed per mile?
  3. Fuel source?
  4. Impact on forests?

Answer Key:

  1. Indus Valley Railway.
  2. Wood from tamarisk/Jhand forests.
  3. Massive tree felling.

7. Solved Exercise-End Questions (NCERT Solutions)

Why are forests affected by wars? Answer: Wars abandon management; reckless felling for needs. WWI/WWII: India cut for British; Java Dutch scorched earth, Japanese exploited. Resources strategic; post-war, hard to control expansion by locals. Accelerated global deforestation.

Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people: Shifting cultivators, Nomadic and pastoralist communities, Firms trading in timber/forest produce, Plantation owners, Kings/British officials engaged in shikar (hunting). Answer: Shifting cultivators: Banned practice, displaced, livelihoods lost. Nomadic/pastoralists: Restricted grazing, hunting; some criminalized, forced labor. Timber firms: Gained monopolies, profited from trade. Plantation owners: Got cheap land, cleared forests for tea/rubber. Kings/officials: Hunting became sport, rewards for killing; led to species decline.

What are the similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and in Java? Answer: Both British/Dutch introduced scientific forestry, reserving areas, banning local practices. Restricted shifting cultivation, grazing. Forced labor (blandongdiensten in Java). Rebellions against (Bastar 1910, Samin in Java). Aimed timber for ships/railways. Post-war, similar exploitation/conflicts.

Between 1880 and 1920, forest cover in the Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7 million hectares, from 108.6 million hectares to 98.9 million hectares. Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline: Railways, Shipbuilding, Agricultural expansion, Commercial farming, Tea/Coffee plantations, Adivasis and other peasant users. Answer: Railways: Needed millions sleepers, fuelwood. Shipbuilding: Oak shortage led to Indian timber felling. Agricultural expansion: Population growth cleared for food. Commercial farming: British promoted crops like jute. Tea/coffee plantations: Vast areas cleared. Adivasis/peasants: Shifting cultivation, but minor compared to colonial demands.

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