EXERCISE QUESTIONS

CHAPTER 1: NATURAL RESOURSES AND THEIR USE

Exercise Questions (Page 19)

Question 1: What can make what is today a renewable resource non-renewable tomorrow? Describe some actions that can prevent this from happening.

Answer: A renewable resource can turn non-renewable if exploited faster than it regenerates, disrupting nature’s cycles—for example, over-harvesting timber or excessive groundwater use in Punjab.

Actions to Prevent This:

1. Sustainable Harvesting: Use resources at regeneration rates, e.g., regulated logging or seasonal fishing bans.
2. Restoration: Adopt reforestation, water harvesting, and organic farming (like Sikkim’s model).
3. Reduce Waste: Encourage recycling and efficient use of water and energy.
4. Policy & Awareness: Enforce rules and educate communities on sustainable practices to protect ecological balance.

Question 2: Name five ecosystem functions that serve humans.

Answer: Five Ecosystem Services Benefiting Humans

1. Oxygen Production: Trees release oxygen vital for survival (a mature tree gives ~275 liters/day).
2. Water Filtration: Forests and wetlands naturally purify water for drinking and irrigation.
3. Soil Protection: Vegetation prevents erosion, safeguards farmland, and reduces landslides.
4. Pollination: Bees and insects pollinate crops, ensuring food supply.
5. Carbon Sequestration: Forests absorb CO₂, slowing climate change and improving air quality.

Question 3: What are renewable resources? How are they different from non-renewable ones? What can people do to ensure that renewable resources continue to be available for our use and that of future generations? Give two examples.

Answer:

• Renewable Resources: Naturally replenished if managed well (e.g., solar, wind, water, timber).
  Non-Renewable Resources: Form over millions of years and cannot regenerate quickly (e.g., coal, petroleum, iron, gold).
• Key Difference: Renewables can regenerate if not overused; non-renewables are finite and deplete with use.
• Ensuring Availability:
  • Sustainable Use: Harvest at regeneration rate (regulated fishing, timber use).
  • Restoration: Reforestation, water harvesting, organic farming.
  • Innovation: Promote solar and wind energy.
  • Awareness: Educate communities on sustainability.
• Examples:
• Sikkim: Organic farming restored soil health.
• Rajasthan: Traditional water harvesting sustained groundwater.

Question 4: Identify cultural practices in your home and neighborhood that point to mindfulness in the use of natural resources.

Answer: Cultural Practices for Mindful Resource Use-

1. Tulasi Puja: Encourages cultivation, supports air quality & biodiversity.
2. Arghyam to Surya: Builds gratitude for sunlight & water.
3. Water Conservation: Ritual water reused for plants/household.
4. Natural Materials: Clay diyas, leaf plates reduce plastic use.
5. Tree Planting: Festivals & drives promote greenery, soil health.

Question 5: What are some considerations to keep in mind in the production of goods for our current use?

Answer: Sustainable Production Considerations

1. Minimize Pollution: Cleaner methods (e.g., cement industry dust control per CPCB).
2. Sustainable Materials: Use mud, stone, or recycled waste (Auroville’s mud buildings).
3. Support Local: Source locally to cut emissions and create jobs.
4. Ensure Regeneration: Harvest renewables (e.g., timber) at sustainable rates.
5. Reduce Waste: Design for minimal waste, recycling, and reuse.

CHAPTER 2:-RESHAPING INDIA’S POLITICAL MAP-Q&A

Exercise Questions (Page 39)

Question 1: Compare the political strategies of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals. What similarities and differences existed between them?

Answer:

• Similarities: Expansion through military conquests and plunder (e.g., Ala-ud-din Khilji, Akbar’s early wars).Centralized power under ruler with ministerial support.Wealth extraction via taxes and plunder to fund armies.
• Differences:
• Strategy: Sultanate relied mainly on force; Mughals (esp. Akbar) mixed conquests with diplomacy (marriage alliances, sulh-i kul).
• Administration: Sultanate less structured; Mughals had mansabdari and Todar Mal’s revenue reforms.
• Religion: Sultanate enforced conformity; Akbar promoted tolerance (abolished jizya), though Aurangzeb reversed it.
• Stability: Sultanate had short, violent reigns (~9 years); Mughals enjoyed longer, more stable rule (~27 years).

Question 2: Why did kingdoms like the Vijayanagara Empire and the Ahom Kingdom manage to resist conquest for a longer time compared to others? What geographical, military, and social factors contributed to their success?

Answer:

• Vijayanagara Empire
• Geography: Hampi’s hills & Tungabhadra River gave natural defenses.
• Military: Strong armies under Krishnadevaraya, Portuguese horse trade, fortified cities.
• Society: Temple-based economy, cultural patronage, and Nayaka system ensured loyalty & resilience.
• Ahom Kingdom
• Geography: Assam’s forests, hills & Brahmaputra enabled guerrilla tactics (e.g., Battle of Saraighat, 1671).
• Military: Paik system made all men contribute to defense; leaders like Lachit Borphukan.
• Society: Diverse yet cohesive communities strengthened resistance.
• Why They Resisted Longer: Both used terrain, strong militaries, and social unity—advantages smaller, Delhi-near kingdoms lacked.

Question 3: Imagine you are a scholar in the court of Akbar or Krishnadevaraya. Write a letter to a friend describing the politics, trade, culture, and society you are witnessing.

Answer:

Dear Friend,
I write from Emperor Akbar’s court at Fatehpur Sikri, a city of grandeur and learning. Akbar blends conquest with diplomacy, marrying Rajput princesses, appointing Hindu officials, and promoting sulh-i kul (peace for all). His mansabdari army and Todar Mal’s revenue reforms keep the empire strong.Trade thrives as merchants from Persia and Central Asia fill Agra’s markets, using the hundi system for safe transactions. Art and culture flourish with miniature paintings and Persian translations of epics, while Abul Fazl records Akbar’s vision.Society is diverse, with Hindus and Muslims living in relative harmony under Akbar’s tolerance, unlike the violent raids of earlier sultans. It is a privilege to witness this era of prosperity.

Yours, [Your Name]

Question 4: How come Akbar, a ruthless conqueror in his young days, grew tolerant and benevolent after some years? What could have led to such a change?

Answer: Akbar’s transformation from a ruthless conqueror to a tolerant ruler was influenced by:

1. Exposure to Diversity: Ruling Hindus, Jains, and others led him to interfaith dialogues.
2. Political Strategy: Needed Rajput alliances, so arranged marriages and abolished jizya.
3. Personal Growth: Regretted earlier brutality (e.g., Chittorgarh), showing maturity.
4. Influence of Advisors: Scholars, Sufis, and Jesuits shaped his sulh-i kul policy.
5. Long Reign: His 50-year rule gave time to reflect and reform.

Question 5: What might have happened in the Vijayanagara Empire had it won the Battle of Talikota? Imagine and describe how it could have changed the political and cultural history of south India.

Answer: Had the Vijayanagara Empire won the Battle of Talikota (1565):

1. Political Impact: A victory would have secured Vijayanagara’s dominance in the Deccan, subdued Sultanates, delayed Mughal influence, and preserved centralized rule instead of Nayaka fragmentation.
2. Cultural Impact: Krishnadevaraya’s patronage of temples, literature, and architecture would have continued, keeping Hampi a vibrant cultural and trade hub.
3. Social & Economic Impact: Temple economies and trade (e.g., with Portuguese) would have prospered, possibly fostering Hindu-Muslim integration and reducing conflicts.
4. Long-Term Outcome: A strong Vijayanagara could have resisted Mughal expansion, preserved southern cultural identity, and shaped later resistance to colonial powers.

Question 6: Many values promoted by early Sikhism, including equality, seva, and justice, remain relevant today. Select one of these values and discuss how it remains relevant in contemporary society.

Answer: Value: Equality

Guru Nanak’s early Sikhism stressed equality (Ek Onkar), rejecting caste and religious divisions.

1. Social Inclusion: Relevant in tackling caste, gender, and economic gaps; reflected in langar where all eat together.
2. Global Relevance: Promotes tolerance amid racial/religious divides; seen in Sikh aid during crises.
3. Policy Impact: Inspires advocacy for equal rights in education, jobs, and justice, echoing constitutional ideals.Sikhism’s equality principle continues to foster inclusive and harmonious societies.

Question 7: Imagine you are a trader in a port city (Surat, Calicut, or Hogghly). Describe the scenes you see as regards goods, people you trade with, and movement of ships.

Answer: As a trader in 16th-century Surat, I see a bustling port alive with ships from Arabia, Persia, and Portugal unloading silk, horses, and metals, while Indian cotton, spices, and indigo are shipped abroad. Merchants—Marwaris, Arabs, and Europeans—haggle in markets, using hundi notes for safe trade. Artisans showcase textiles and jewelry, oxen haul goods, and the air is filled with shouts, coins clinking, and the scent of spices. Portuguese buyers mingle with local Jains and Muslims, making Surat a cosmopolitan hub linking India to the world.

CHAPTER 3:-THE RISE OF THE MARATHAS-Q&A

Exercise Questions (Page 82)

Question 1: Analyse how geography (particularly mountains and coastlines) guided Maratha military strategy and state formation.

Answer:

• Mountains: The Western Ghats gave Shivaji natural defenses and bases like Raigad and Pratapgad, vital for guerrilla warfare and controlling routes. Forests around Pratapgad enabled the 1659 ambush of Afzal Khan.
• Coastlines: The Konkan coast helped Shivaji build a navy to secure trade and challenge Europeans. Forts like Sindhudurg protected resources, while Kanhoji Angre used the coast to outmaneuver foreign ships.
• State Formation: Rugged terrain and forts let the Marathas resist stronger powers, while coastal trade funded wars and cultural growth, linking to ports like Mocha and Muscat.

Question 2: Imagine you are creating a short biography of a Maratha leader for younger students. Choose one personality (Kanhoji Angre, Baji Rao I, Mahadji Shinde, Ahilyabai Holkar, or Tarabai) and write 3-4 paragraphs highlighting what makes them inspirational. Include at least one challenge they overcame.

Answer:
Ahilyabai Holkar: A Beacon of Compassion and Leadership

Ahilyabai Holkar (1725–1795), the Maratha queen of Indore, ruled for 30 years with wisdom, compassion, and dedication. Born into a humble family, she rose to power after losing her husband and son, showing resilience and empathy in leadership. Her reign was marked by fair governance and public works—building roads, wells, and temples from Kedarnath to Rameswaram—earning her the title of the “people’s queen.”

Ahilyabai faced the great loss of her husband in 1754 and later her son, leaving her to rule alone in a male-dominated era. Yet, she confidently managed finances, military, and justice, turning personal grief into strength. Her resilience and leadership make her a timeless role model.

Beyond governance, Ahilyabai rebuilt sacred sites like the Kashi Vishwanath temple and promoted the Maheshwar weaving industry, keeping traditional crafts alive. Her devotion to public welfare across caste and religion reflected her inclusive vision, inspiring youth to value fairness and service.

Ahilyabai’s legacy shows that true leadership blends strength with kindness. Despite personal loss, she prioritized people’s welfare, becoming a lasting symbol of courage and compassion for young learners.

Question 3: If you could visit one Maratha fort today (such as Raigad, Sindhudurg, Gingee, or Pratapgad), which would you choose and why? Research its history, architecture, and strategic importance. Present your findings as a digital presentation or a poster in class.

Answer:
Chosen Fort: Raigad

• Why: Raigad, called the “King of Forts,” was Shivaji’s capital and the place of his 1674 coronation. It is important because of its history, design, and role in the Maratha empire.
• History: Raigad became the Maratha capital and the site of Shivaji’s coronation. Later, it was captured by Aurangzeb after the death of Shivaji’s son Sambhaji.
• Architecture: The fort is built 2,700 feet high in the Sahyadri mountains. It has 1,737 steps, strong walls, natural cliffs for protection, and important sites like the Jagdishwar temple and Shivaji’s throne.
• Strategic Importance: Its high location and tough terrain made it very hard to capture. It was useful for guerrilla warfare and for controlling routes in the Deccan. It also gave shelter to the Marathas during Mughal invasions.
• Presentation Idea: A digital slideshow or poster with pictures of Raigad’s ruins, maps, a timeline of key events, and quotes from Shivaji’s time.

Question 4: The chapter states, “The British took India from the Marathas more than from the Mughals or any other power.” What do you think this means? What evidence from the chapter supports this idea?

Answer: The Marathas, at their peak in the 18th century, were the main power the British had to defeat to establish rule in India, unlike the weakened Mughals.

Evidence:

• They controlled vast regions, including Lahore, Attock, and Delhi (recaptured in 1771 by Mahadji Shinde).
• The three Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818) show they were the British’s chief rivals.
• Nana Phadnavis even built an anti-British alliance with Hyder Ali and the Nizam, proving Maratha dominance.

Question 5: Compare how Shivaji and later Marathas treated religious places and people of different faiths. What evidence from the chapter shows their approach to religious diversity?

Answer:

• Shivaji’s Approach: A devout Hindu who respected all faiths, sparing religious sites during the Surat raid, rebuilding temples, and promoting Sanskrit and Marathi over Persian without intolerance. His saffron flag symbolized cultural pride, not discrimination.
• Later Marathas: Ahilyabai Holkar rebuilt temples like Kashi Vishwanath and supported public works for all. Thanjavur Marathas fostered a syncretic culture, patronizing Carnatic music and Bharatanatyam. Yet, some campaigns (e.g., Bengal) showed lapses.
• Comparison: Both upheld Hindu traditions without widespread persecution. Shivaji’s rule was more disciplined, while later Marathas’ decentralized power led to occasional deviations.

Question 6: The chapter describes how forts were ‘the core of the state’ for Marathas. Why were they so important? How did they help the Marathas survive against larger enemies?

Answer:

• Importance of Forts: As noted in Adnyapatra, forts were vital to Maratha power—securing the state, guarding routes, housing armies, and symbolizing resilience.
• Survival Against Larger Enemies:
• Defense: Mountain forts like Raigad and Pratapgad were nearly impregnable.
• Guerrilla Warfare: Served as bases for ambushes, e.g., Pratapgad (1659).
• Strategic Control: Hundreds of forts let Marathas dominate Deccan routes and disrupt supplies.
• Evidence: Even after Aurangzeb took Bijapur and Golconda, forts sustained Maratha resistance under Tarabai and enabled later expansion.

Question 7: You have been appointed as the chief designer for Maratha coins. Design a coin that represents Maratha achievements and values. Explain the symbols you chose.

Answer:Coin Design

Obverse: Saffron flag with sun (Swarajya & revival), inscription in Modi script: “Shri Raja Shiva Chhatrapati.”

Reverse: Fort (Raigad) with ship (naval power), Devanagari inscription invoking Ganesha.

Symbols:

• Flag & Sun: Maratha pride and Shivaji’s self-rule.
• Fort: Strategic core of Maratha power (Adnyapatra).
• Ship: Navy’s resistance to Europeans.
• Scripts & Ganesha: Cultural revival and tradition in governance

Question 8: After this introduction to the Maratha period, what do you think was their most important contribution to Indian history? Write a paragraph supporting your opinion with examples from the chapter. Then share and discuss your ideas with classmates.

Answer:
Marathas’ Contribution:
The Marathas inspired self-rule and cultural pride, laying foundations for India’s freedom movement. Shivaji’s Swarajya, forts, and navy defied Mughals and Europeans, while his inclusive policies promoted unity. Leaders like Tarabai and Ahilyabai revived traditions and built temples without bias. Thanjavur Marathas enriched arts like Bharatanatyam and Carnatic music. By ruling vast regions and resisting the British till 1818, they proved Indians could govern themselves, inspiring later independence struggles.

CHAPTER 4:- THE COLONIAL ERA IN INDIA- Q&A

Exercise Questions (Page 33)

Question 1: What is colonialism? Give three different definitions based on the chapter or on your knowledge.

Answer:Colonialism:

1. Political Control: Dominance of one nation over another, e.g., Britain’s takeover of India through the East India Company.
2. Economic Exploitation: Extraction of wealth for the colonizer’s gain, like Britain draining India’s resources to fuel its Industrial Revolution.
3. Cultural Imposition: Forcing culture, religion, or education, seen in the Portuguese Inquisition in Goa and Macaulay’s “brown Englishmen” policy.

Question 2: Colonial rulers often claimed that their mission was to ‘civilise’ the people they ruled. Based on the evidence in this chapter, do you think this was true in the case of India? Why or why not?

Answer: The British “civilizing mission” was false, as policies focused on exploitation: heavy taxes caused famines (e.g., Bengal Famine, 1769–72), deindustrialization crippled textiles, and village self-rule was dismantled. Macaulay’s education created loyal elites, not uplift. Railways and archaeology mainly served British interests. Resistance like the 1857 Rebellion, and voices such as Dadabhai Naoroji and Begum Hazrat Mahal, exposed British rule as oppressive.

Question 3: How was the British approach to colonising India different from earlier European powers like the Portuguese or the French?

Answer:

1. Portuguese: Sought naval dominance (cartaz system) and conversions via the Goa Inquisition, but held only limited coastal control.
2. French: Built trading posts like Pondicherry and, under Dupleix, trained sepoys and used indirect rule, but lost influence after the Carnatic Wars.
3. British: Transitioned from traders to rulers through the East India Company, using “divide and rule,” Doctrine of Lapse, and subsidiary alliances to expand. Unlike Portuguese zeal or French limits, they restructured India’s economy, governance, and education for imperial gain, seen in deindustrialization and Macaulay’s policies.

Question 4: “Indians funded their own subjugation.” What does this mean in the context of British infrastructure projects in India like the railway and telegraph networks?

Answer: “Indians funded their own subjugation” means Indian tax revenues financed British projects like railways and telegraphs, which mainly served colonial trade and military control. Built with Indian money, these strengthened British dominance while burdening Indians, as noted in Dadabhai Naoroji’s drain of wealth theory.

Question 5: What does the phrase ‘divide and rule’ mean? Give examples of how this was used by the British in India?

Answer: 

“Divide and rule” was the British strategy of exploiting divisions among Indian rulers and communities to maintain control.

Examples include the

• Battle of Plassey (1757), where Clive conspired with Mir Jafar against Siraj-ud-Daulah;
• fueling Hindu-Muslim tensions during the 1857 Rebellion; and
• using subsidiary alliances (e.g., Hyderabad, 1798) to make rulers dependent on British power.

Question 6: Choose one area of Indian life, such as agriculture, education, trade, or village life. How was it affected by colonial rule? Can you find any signs of those changes still with us today? Express your ideas through a short essay, a poem, a drawing, or a painting.

Answer:

Short Essay: Impact on Indian Education
British rule reshaped Indian education from a community-based system to one serving imperial needs. Pre-colonial India had pathshalas, madrasas, and viharas teaching practical and cultural knowledge in local languages, with reports noting 100,000–150,000 village schools in Bengal and Bihar by 1830. But Macaulay’s 1835 Minute dismissed Indian knowledge, promoting English-medium education to create “brown Englishmen.” This sidelined traditional schools, fostered an elite cut off from their heritage, and deepened social divides. English became a marker of prestige, marginalizing vernacular learning.The legacy persists in India’s reliance on English for status and opportunity, seen in English-medium schools and exams. Yet, regional language movements and efforts to revive traditional knowledge show resistance. Colonial disruption of indigenous education still shapes disparities and cultural identity debates today.

Question 7: Imagine you are a reporter in 1857. Write a brief news report on Rani Lakshmibai’s resistance at Jhansi. Include a timeline or storyboard showing how the rebellion began, spread, and ended, highlighting key events and leaders.

Answer:

News Report: Rani Lakshmibai’s Heroic Stand at Jhansi, June 1857
Jhansi, June 1857 – Rani Lakshmibai, queen of Jhansi, is leading a valiant defense against British attempts to annex her kingdom under the Doctrine of Lapse. After the British rejected her adopted son’s claim to the throne, she rallied sepoys and locals to resist. With support from Tantia Tope, she commands with courage and skill, repelling early assaults. Her defiance inspires rebels across northern India, where uprisings spread to Kanpur and Lucknow amid anger over greased cartridges. The Rani has vowed to defend Jhansi to her last breath.

Timeline of the 1857 Rebellion:

• Mar 1857: Mangal Pandey attacks officers at Barrackpore; executed.
• May 1857: Sepoys at Meerut rebel, march to Delhi, proclaim Bahadur Shah Zafar leader.
• Jun 1857: Revolt spreads—Nana Saheb (Kanpur), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Lucknow), Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi).
• Sep 1857: British recapture Delhi with mass killings.
• Mar 1858: British besiege Jhansi; Rani escapes, seizes Gwalior with Tantia Tope.
• Jun 1858: Rani dies in battle at Gwalior.
• 1858–59: British crush revolt; Tantia Tope executed. Crown takes direct rule of India.

Question 8: Imagine an alternate history where India was never colonised by European powers. Write a short story of about 300 words exploring how India might have developed on its own path.

Answer:

A Free India’s Dawn
In an uncolonized 1857, India thrives as a federation led by a revitalized Maratha Empire under Nana Saheb, allied with Mughal remnants and southern rulers. Forts guard trade routes, Kanhoji Angre’s heirs maintain a strong navy, and ports like Surat and Calicut bustle with global trade. Artisans weave silks, forge wootz steel, and scholars blend Sanskrit, Persian, and Tamil knowledge in thriving centers like Thanjavur.Without exploitative revenue policies, famines are rare, village councils manage resources, and women rulers continue Ahilyabai Holkar’s legacy of education and infrastructure. The federation treats European traders as equals while forging alliances with Japan and Persia.Though rivalries persist, a grand council in Delhi, inspired by Shivaji’s Swarajya, mediates disputes. Poets like Bankim Chandra foster unity with works such as Vande Mataram. By 1857, India stands prosperous, self-governing, and globally influential—free from the shadow of colonial subjugation.

Question 9: Role-play: Enact a historical discussion between a British official and an Indian personality like Dadabhai Naoroji on the British colonial rule in India.

Answer:

Historical Discussion: British Official vs. Dadabhai Naoroji, 1901

Sir John Smith (British Official): Mr. Naoroji, our rule has brought progress—railways, telegraphs, English education. Surely you see the benefits?
Naoroji: These “benefits” mask exploitation. Railways, built with Indian taxes, carry raw materials to Britain while artisans starve. In Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, I show Britain drains £30 million yearly from us.
Smith: Yet we replaced chaotic princely rule with order and justice.
Naoroji: You dismantled village republics, annexed states like Jhansi, and ignored famines—10 million died in Bengal while taxes rose.
Smith: Still, our education opens opportunities.
Naoroji: Macaulay’s system scorns our heritage, producing clerks, not scholars. Our schools once taught practical skills; now you create “brown Englishmen.”
Smith: But under our protection, India shares in global trade.
Naoroji: Trade? Your tariffs ruined our textiles, reducing India’s GDP share to 5%. We demand Swaraj—self-rule to restore prosperity.
Moderator: Clearly, the debate reflects opposing views on whether British rule modernized or exploited India.

Question 10: Explore a local resistance movement (tribal, peasant, or princely) from your state or region during the colonial period. Prepare a report or poster describing: What was the specific trigger, if any? Who led the movement? What were their demands? How did the British respond? How is this event remembered today?

Answer:

Report: Santhal Rebellion (1855–1856)

Trigger: Sparked by British land policies in the Santhal Parganas, which imposed cash taxes, backed moneylenders, and seized tribal lands. Forest restrictions further disrupted Santhal life.

Leaders: Brothers Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu rallied thousands, calling for justice and self-rule.

Demands: Restoration of lands, an end to exploitative taxes, and establishment of a “Santhal Raj” free from British and landlord control.

British Response: The British crushed the uprising with brutal force—burning villages, killing thousands, and executing Sidhu and Kanhu.

Legacy: Remembered as Hul Diwas (June 30) in Jharkhand. Monuments, folk songs, and the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act honor their fight for land rights and inspire tribal identity.

CHAPTER 5:- UNIVERSAL FRANCHISE AND INDIA’S ELECTORAL SYSTEM

Exercise Questions (Page 138)

Question 1: Why is universal adult franchise important for a healthy democracy?

Answer: Universal adult franchise ensures equal participation in democracy by giving every citizen above 18 the right to vote, regardless of caste, gender, religion, or education. It empowers people to choose representatives, promotes inclusivity, and strengthens legitimacy. In India, with 880 million voters in 2024, it allows diverse voices to shape policies and fosters accountability in governance.

Question 2: What is the meaning of ‘secret ballot’? Why is this important in a democracy?

Answer: A secret ballot is a voting process where no one knows who a voter chose, ensuring privacy and freedom of choice. In India, voters mark their preference on EVMs or paper ballots in private booths, as seen in the classroom election example with Ms. Usha. It is important because it protects voters from coercion, intimidation, or social pressure, allowing them to vote according to their conscience, which is essential for a free and fair democratic process.

Question 3: Give examples of direct and indirect elections.

Answer:

Direct Elections:

• Lok Sabha: voters elect 543 MPs.
• State Assemblies: voters elect MLAs.
• Local bodies: voters elect panchayat/municipal members.

Indirect Elections:

• Rajya Sabha: MLAs elect MPs.
• President: MPs and MLAs vote using the single transferable system.

Question 4: How is the election of members to the Lok Sabha different from that to the Rajya Sabha?

Answer:

• Lok Sabha: 543 members directly elected by voters through first-past-the-post; elections every five years or upon dissolution.
• Rajya Sabha: Members indirectly elected by State Assemblies via proportional representation; one-third elected every two years.

Question 5: What, in your view, are the advantages of the EVM over paper ballots?

Answer:

Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) offer several advantages over paper ballots:

• Efficiency: Speeds up voting and counting for large electorates.
• Accuracy: Reduces counting errors and invalid votes.
• Security: With VVPAT, ensures verifiable, transparent results.
• Cost-Effective: Cuts printing and logistics costs.
• Accessibility: Braille features aid disabled voters.

Question 6: Voter turnout has been declining in some urban areas of India. What could be the reasons for this trend, and what steps can be taken to encourage more people to vote?

Answer:

Reasons for Low Turnout:

• Apathy: Many feel their vote won’t matter.
• Logistics: Busy schedules, migration, or lack of awareness.
• Distrust: Corruption and poor candidates (hence NOTA).
• Barriers: Queues and limited facilities despite ECI efforts.

Steps to Boost Voting:

• Awareness: Campaigns via social media and local events.
• Convenience: More postal/home voting (e.g., 2024 elderly, disabled).
• Technology: Apps for registration and polling info.
• Engagement: Drives via schools, leaders, community events.
• Incentives: Stress civic duty and NOTA as dissent.

Question 7: Why do you think a proportion of seats in the Lok Sabha are reserved for persons from the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes?

Answer: A proportion of Lok Sabha seats (84 for Scheduled Castes, 47 for Scheduled Tribes) are reserved to ensure representation of historically marginalized communities. These groups faced social and economic exclusion, limiting their political voice. Reservations empower them to elect representatives who address their specific concerns, such as discrimination, land rights, and access to education, promoting inclusivity and equity in India’s democracy, as envisioned by the Constitution makers.

Question 8: Social media is changing the way we experience elections from catchy campaign reels and live speeches to political debates on Instagram and Twitter. But is this strengthening democracy or confusing it? Discuss in pairs: What are the benefits, what are the challenges, and what might the future of elections be in a digital age?

Answer:

Benefits:

• Engagement- social media platforms like Instagram and twitter make campaigns accessible, with reels and live speeches reaching younger and urban voters, increasing awareness.
• Outreach: Candidates share policies directly (e.g., Ravi’s music or Gurmat’s noticeboard), building voter connection.
• Transparency: Debates and posts let voters scrutinize candidates, boosting discourse.

Challenges:

• Misinformation: Fake content misleads voters.
• Polarization: Divisive rhetoric, echoing MCC concerns.
• Digital Divide: Rural and less tech-savvy voters risk exclusion.

Future:

• Digital Integration: AI tools and secure online voting, building on ECI apps.
• Regulation: Stronger rules on online campaigns to curb fakes.
• Hybrid Model: Blend of digital outreach and physical polling ensures inclusivity.

Question 9: Visit the website https://www.indiavotes.com, and choose a parliamentary constituency election from any year and explore its results. Do the same for an assembly election in your state.

Answer- 

I’m glad you explored IndiaVotes, one of India’s biggest election databases spanning Lok Sabha (PC) and State Assembly (AC) elections. Here’s a snapshot using available sources:

Parliamentary Constituency Example — Lok Sabha

I took a look at the PC 2024 Summary on IndiaVotes, which displays alliance performance across all parliamentary constituencies:The NDA (BJP-led) won 292 seats (vote share ~44.3%)The INDIA coalition secured 230 seats (vote share ~37.2%). Unfortunately, constituency-level results weren’t directly accessible in this search—however, this snapshot gives a bird’s-eye view of the national picture for 2024.

State Assembly Election Example — Haryana 2024 (AC)

This snapshot highlights voter engagement but—like the parliamentary data—specific winning parties or candidates per constituency weren’t visible in the quick search results. I also checked the Haryana Assembly results for 2024 via IndiaVotes:Total Electors: ~2.05 croresVotes Polled: ~1.38 croresVoter Turnout: 67.6% across 90 constituencies.

CHAPTER 6- THE PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM: LEGISLATURE AND EXECUTIVE

Exercise Questions (Pages 161–162)

Question 1: Find out how many representatives from your state are in each House of the Parliament.

Answer: The number of parliamentary representatives differs from state to state. For instance, Uttar Pradesh is allocated 80 seats in the Lok Sabha and 31 seats in the Rajya Sabha, whereas smaller states such as Sikkim have just 1 seat in each house. To find the precise number of seats for your state, refer to the Election Commission of India’s website or consult the official records for the 18th Lok Sabha (2024) and current Rajya Sabha allocations.

Question 2: What makes the Indian Parliament the “voice of the people”? How does it ensure that different opinions are heard?

Answer: The Indian Parliament is the “voice of the people” because it comprises elected representatives chosen through universal adult franchise, reflecting diverse societal interests. It ensures different opinions are heard through:

• Debates and Discussions: MPs debate bills, as seen with the RTE Act, allowing diverse perspectives.
• Question Hour: MPs question ministers, raising public concerns.
• Linguistic Accessibility: Translation in 18 languages ensures inclusivity.
• Federal Representation: The Rajya Sabha represents state interests, balancing regional voices.

Question 3: Why do you think the Constitution made the Executive responsible to the Legislature?

Answer: The Constitution makes the Executive (Prime Minister and Council of Ministers) responsible to the Legislature (Lok Sabha) to ensure accountability and democratic governance. Since MPs are elected by the people, their oversight through mechanisms like Question Hour ensures the Executive implements laws and policies in the public’s interest, preventing misuse of power.

Question 4: Why do you think we have chosen the system of bicameral legislature at the Union level?

Answer: India adopted a bicameral legislature to:

• Promote Federalism: The Rajya Sabha represents state interests, balancing national unity with regional diversity.
• Ensure Deliberation: The upper house reviews and refines bills passed by the Lok Sabha, enhancing legislative quality.
• Balance Power: It prevents hasty legislation and provides stability, as Rajya Sabha members are elected indirectly and serve longer terms.

Question 5: Try to track the journey of a recent bill passed by the Parliament. Identify in which House it was introduced. Were there any major debates or disagreements? How long did it take for the bill to become a law? Use newspaper archives, government websites, and Lok Sabha debates, or ask your teacher for help.

Answer: 

Example: Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023

• Introduction: Presented in the Lok Sabha as the Constitution (128th Amendment) Bill on September 19, 2023.
• Journey: Reserved 33% of seats for women in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies. Passed Lok Sabha (454–2) on September 20, Rajya Sabha unanimously on September 21, and received Presidential assent on September 28, 2023.
• Duration: 10 days from introduction to assent; earlier versions debated for 25+ years.
• Source: Lok Sabha/Rajya Sabha websites, news archives (e.g., The Hindu, Sept 2023).

Question 6: Choose a recent law passed by the Parliament. Divide into teams to role-play different parts of the process – MPs debating in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, ministers answering questions, and the President giving assent. Present a short skit showing how a bill becomes a law; enact a ‘model Parliament’.

Answer: 

Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023 (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam)recent law passed by the Parliament is the Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023 (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam).Reserves 33% of seats for women in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.

Model Parliament Skit: MPs debate the bill, with some supporting and some raising concerns.Ministers explain its purpose and implementation.Bill is voted on and passed in the Lok Sabha.Rajya Sabha discusses and passes the bill.Sent to the President, who gives assent.Becomes law and is published in the Gazette of India.

Question 7: The Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023, was passed with wide support. Why might it have taken over 25 years for this bill to be passed, despite being discussed for so long?

Answer:-

The bill faced political disagreements for many years.Parties differed on the reservation percentage and its impact.Some leaders worried it could limit opportunities for men or affect caste-based representation.After prolonged debates and growing demand for women’s political participation, a consensus was reached in 2023.

Question 8: Sometimes the Parliament is disrupted and does not function for the number of days it is supposed to. What impact do you think this has on the quality of laws and the trust people place in their representatives?

Answer: 

Impact on Quality of Laws:

• Delayed Legislation: Disruptions, as noted with low productivity (e.g., Rajya Sabha’s 35.75% in 2018), delay bills, leading to rushed or poorly debated laws.
• Reduced Scrutiny: Limited discussion time weakens the quality of laws, as seen with prolonged debates on bills like RTE.

Impact on Public Trust:

• Erosion of Confidence: Frequent disruptions and absenteeism signal inefficiency, reducing trust in MPs.
• Perception of Neglect: Angry or biased debates, as highlighted in media cartoons, make citizens feel their concerns are ignored, undermining democratic faith.

Question 9: Can you create ‘interest’ groups among students and list questions related to any policy that you may want to ask your MP and/or your MLA? How would these questions be different if it is to the MP instead of the MLA, and vice versa?

Answer:

Interest Group:

• Education Policy (NEP 2020)MP (Union Level) Questions:

How is NEP 2020 being implemented uniformly across states?What funds are allocated for teacher training in 2025–26?How will vocational education under NEP support national job creation?

• MLA (State Level) Questions:

How is the state integrating NEP’s multilingual education in schools?Are there plans to upgrade school infrastructure to NEP standards?How is the state addressing teacher shortages in rural areas?

• Key Difference: MPs focus on national policy, funding, and coordination; MLAs address state-level implementation, infrastructure, and local challenges.

Question 10: What is the role that the Judiciary plays in Indian democracy? What could happen if we didn’t have an independent Judiciary?

Answer:

Role of Judiciary

• Interpreting Laws: Resolves disputes and ensures legal clarity.
• Constitutional Guardian: Ensures laws and actions comply with the Constitution.
• Protecting Rights: Safeguards fundamental rights and democratic values.
• Checks and Balances: Prevents legislative or executive overreach.

Without an Independent Judiciary:

• Unchecked Power: Risk of unconstitutional laws and authoritarianism.
• Rights Violations: Citizens’ rights may be ignored.
• Erosion of Democracy: Weakens accountability and public trust.

CHAPTER 7-FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

Exercise Questions (Pages 180–181)

Question 1: How are the factors of production different from each other? What are the difficulties you faced in classifying the factors of production in the exercise given in-text?

Answer:

Factors of Production

• Land: Natural resources like soil, water, and minerals.
• Labour: Human physical and mental effort, enhanced by skills and knowledge.
• Capital: Money and human-made assets (machinery, buildings) for production.
• Entrepreneurship: Vision and risk-taking to combine factors and innovate.
• Technology: Scientific applications (e.g., UPI, drones) that boost efficiency.

Classification Challenges:

• Overlap: Some assets (e.g., factory) may be land or capital.
• Context: Water can be land (agriculture) or capital (bottling).
• Technology vs. Capital: Tools like computers can be both.
• Local Variations: Subtle factors, like entrepreneurial decisions, may be overlooked in small businesses.

Question 2: How does human capital differ from physical capital?

Answer:

Human vs. Physical Capital

• Human Capital: Skills, knowledge, and expertise of workers, enhanced by education, training, and health (e.g., a developer’s coding skills).
• Physical Capital: Tangible assets like machinery, tools, and buildings that support production.
• Key Difference: Human capital is intangible and resides in people; physical capital is tangible and owned by businesses. Both are essential for production.

Question 3: How do you think technology is changing how people develop their skills and knowledge?

Answer: 

Technology and Skill Development

• Online Learning: Platforms like SWAYAM offer free, self-paced courses.
• Job Access: Portals like National Career Service connect learners to opportunities.
• Skill Enhancement: Virtual simulations provide practical, hands-on training.
• Global Reach: Removes geographical barriers, enabling global knowledge and remote certifications.

Question 4: A skill is something you learn and practice to get better. It helps you do things well, like playing a sport, creative writing, solving math problems, cooking, or even communicating well with people. If you could learn one skill today, what would it be and why?

Answer: 

Chosen Skill: Coding

Reason: Coding is versatile and in high demand, develops logical thinking, opens career opportunities (e.g., via National Career Service), and enables creating innovative solutions that benefit society and personal growth.

Question 5: Do you think entrepreneurship is the ‘driving force’ of production? Why or why not?

Answer: Yes, Entrepreneurship: Driving Force of Production

• Vision & Coordination: Combines land, labour, and capital to create products (e.g., J.R.D. Tata’s ventures).
• Risk-Taking: Invests resources despite uncertainties (e.g., Ratna’s restaurant loan).
• Innovation: Introduces new ideas and technologies, boosting efficiency.
• Job Creation: Starts businesses that generate employment.

Note: Labour and capital are also essential, but entrepreneurship orchestrates these factors, making it pivotal.

Question 6: Can technology replace other factors like labour? Is this good or bad? Support your answer with an example.

Answer: 

Can Technology Replace Labour?

Partial Replacement: Technology can handle repetitive or manual tasks but cannot replace human creativity and decision-making.

Example: Drones in agriculture reduce manual labour for spraying fertilizers.

Pros: Increases efficiency, covers large areas quickly, and reduces physical strain.

Cons: May cause job losses for unskilled workers.

Balance: Technology should complement labour, with retraining to ensure inclusive growth.

Question 7: How do education and skill training affect human capital? Can they substitute for each other, or do they complement each other?

Answer:

Impact on Human Capital

• Education: Provides foundational knowledge for problem-solving (e.g., literacy, engineering principles).
• Skill Training: Offers practical expertise, boosting efficiency and productivity.

Complementary Role: Education gives theory; training applies it (e.g., a civil engineer needs both for durable bridges). Relying on only one limits versatility.

Question 8: Imagine you want to start a business that produces steel water bottles. What kind of inputs are needed? How would you obtain them? Suppose one of the factors is missing, what happens to your business operations?

Answer:

Inputs Needed for Bottle Production

• Land: Factory space and raw materials (steel, water).
• Labour: Skilled workers and human capital (designers, welders).
• Capital: Machinery, tools, and operational funds.
• Entrepreneurship: Vision for eco-friendly design and marketing.
• Technology: Automation and online sales platforms.

How to Obtain:

• Land: Lease factory, source materials locally or via import.
• Labour: Hire via job portals and train workers.
• Capital: Personal savings, bank loans, or crowdfunding.
• Entrepreneurship: Create a sustainable business plan.
• Technology: Invest in machinery and e-commerce tools.

If a Factor is Missing (e.g., Labour):

• Impact: Production halts; quality suffers.
• Solution: Hire temporary workers or automate, but invest in long-term training.

Question 9: Interview an entrepreneur or founder to understand their motivation to start a business and the opportunities and challenges they saw. You can work in pairs to create a questionnaire to collect the information and share what you have learned in a report.

Answer:

Questionnaire for Entrepreneurs-

1. What inspired you to start your business?
2. What problem does your business solve?
3. What market opportunities did you identify?
4. Challenges in securing land, labour, or capital?
5. How did you use technology?
6. How did your skills/training help?
7. How do you ensure sustainability?
8. Advice for young entrepreneurs?

Sample Report (Hypothetical – Ratna’s Restaurant):

• Motivation: Passion for cooking; provide affordable, healthy meals.
• Opportunities: Local cuisine demand unmet by competitors.
• Challenges: High-interest bank loan; finding skilled cooks.
• Technology: UPI payments and social media marketing.
• Sustainability: Local sourcing to reduce waste and supply issues.
• Learning: Culinary training and community support helped overcome challenges.

Note-Students should interview a local entrepreneur, adapt the questions, and share findings in class.

Question 10: Think like an economist. Let’s explore what happens when things change. If you were Ratna, what would you do in the following situations? Discuss with your classmates.

Business Scenarios & Responses

1. Rent Doubles
2. Action: Slightly raise prices or relocate to cheaper space.
3. Impact: Higher costs may reduce profits or customer loyalty; relocation risks losing patrons.
4. Staff Quits
5. Action: Train existing staff, hire temporary help, or offer higher wages.
6. Impact: Overworked staff may lower service quality; higher wages increase costs.
7. Small Loan for Technology
8. Action: Invest in automated equipment and online delivery.
9. Impact: Boosts efficiency, quality, profits, and market reach.
10. New Competitor
11. Action: Offer unique dishes, improve service, provide loyalty perks.
12. Impact: Differentiation maintains customers; requires innovation without drastic price cuts.
13. Government Support
14. Suggestions: Simplify loans, reduce compliance, provide tax incentives for sustainable practices.
15. Impact: Easier capital access and lower regulations help business growth and eco-friendly adoption.

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EXTRA QUESTION-ANSWERS.

CHAPTER 1: NATURAL RESOURSES AND THEIR USE

EXTRA QUESTION-ANSWERS.

Question 1: What is a regenerative economy, and why is it important?

Answer: A regenerative economy operates in harmony with nature, repurposing used resources, minimizing waste, and replenishing depleted resources. It is important because it aligns with nature’s restorative and regenerative principles, ensuring

sustainable use of resources to maintain ecological balance and support life on Earth.

Question 2: When does nature become a resource?

Answer: Nature becomes a resource when humans use its elements (life and non-life forms not created by humans) for sustenance or to create new things for consumption. For example, trees become a resource when their wood is used to make furniture. To be considered a resource, it must be technologically accessible, economically feasible, and culturally acceptable.

Question 3: What are the conditions for an entity to be considered a natural resource?

Answer: For an entity to be a natural resource, it must meet three conditions:

1. Technological Accessibility: The technology to extract or use it must exist.

2. Economic Feasibility: The cost of extraction or utilization must be affordable.

3. Cultural Acceptability: The use of the resource must align with cultural values

(e.g., not cutting trees in sacred groves).

Question 4: What are some examples of natural resources mentioned in the chapter?

Answer: Examples include water, air, soil, coal, petroleum, precious stones, metal ores, and timber.

Question 5: How are natural resources categorized based on their use?

Answer: Natural resources are categorized into three types based on their use:

1. Resources Essential for Life: Air, water, and food, derived from the atmosphere, rivers, ponds, and soil.

2. Resources for Materials: Used to create physical objects (e.g., wood for furniture, marble for sculptures).

3. Resources for Energy: Used to generate energy (e.g., coal, petroleum, sunlight, wind, flowing water).

Question 6: What is the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources?

Answer:

Renewable Resources: These can replenish naturally over time if managed sustainably (e.g., solar energy, wind, water, timber). Their availability depends on maintaining nature’s restoration and regeneration cycles.

Non-Renewable Resources: These take millions of years to form and cannot be replenished at the rate they are used (e.g., coal, petroleum, minerals like iron and gold).

Question 7: How does nature’s principle of restoration and regeneration work?

Answer: Nature functions in cycles of restoration (returning to a healthy state after damage) and regeneration (creating new life and thriving conditions). For example, a fallen tree decomposes, enriches the soil, and supports new plant growth, maintaining a cycle with no waste.

Question 8: What are ecosystem functions and ecosystem services?

Answer: Ecosystem Functions: Natural processes like trees producing oxygen, forests filtering water, or preventing soil erosion.

Ecosystem Services: Benefits humans derive from these functions, such as clean water, protected farmland, or pollinated crops.

Question 9: What is the ‘natural resource curse’?

Answer: The ‘natural resource curse’ or ‘paradox of plenty’ refers to regions rich in natural resources experiencing slower economic growth due to an inability to develop industries that convert resources into higher-value products. India has largely avoided this by investing in industries to meet growing needs.

Question 10: How does the uneven distribution of natural resources impact society?

Answer: Uneven distribution shapes human settlements, trade patterns, international relations, and conflicts. Resource-rich areas attract industries and create jobs, but extraction can displace communities and threaten sacred sites, leading to social and

environmental costs.

Question 11: What are some traditional practices mentioned that promote sustainable resource use?

Answer: Regulating fishing during spawning seasons to maintain fish populations. Vrikshâyurveda, an ancient Indian botanical science, promotes sustainable agriculture through crop rotation, mixed cropping, natural pest repellents, and soilfriendly ploughing. Traditional water harvesting, pond rejuvenation, and use of natural fertilizers like cow dung.

Question 12: What are the consequences of overexploiting renewable resources, with an example?

Answer: Overexploitation disrupts nature’s restoration and regeneration cycles, making renewable resources non-renewable. For example, in Punjab, excessive groundwater extraction for farming has depleted water tables to depths of 30 meters, causing health hazards from chemical contamination and threatening long-term water availability.

Question 13: How has Sikkim demonstrated sustainable resource use?

Answer: Sikkim became a 100% organic state by 2016 by transitioning to organic farming, using compost and natural pest repellents. This restored soil health, increased biodiversity, boosted tourism, and raised farmers’ incomes by 20%, serving as a global model for sustainable agriculture.

Question 14: What is the International Solar Alliance, and what is its significance?

Answer: The International Solar Alliance (ISA), launched by India and France in 2015, is a coalition of sunshine-rich countries to harness solar power. It channels funds and expertise for solar projects in developing nations, promoting renewable energy and economic opportunities, as exemplified by India’s Bhadla Solar Park.

Question 15: What is meant by responsible and wise use of natural resources?

Answer: Responsible and wise use involves respecting nature’s cycles, ensuring renewable resources regenerate (e.g., sustainable timber harvesting), and using nonrenewable resources judiciously to extend their availability until sustainable alternatives are developed.

CHAPTER 2:-RESHAPING INDIA’S POLITICAL MAP-Q&A

EXTRA QUESTION-ANSWERS.

Question 1: What is the medieval period in the context of Indian history, and why is the term used?

Answer: The medieval period in Indian history, as discussed in the chapter, refers to the time from the 13th to 17th centuries, marked by foreign invasions, the rise and fall of empires like the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, and regional resistance. The term “medieval” (meaning “between two ages”) is borrowed from European history but applied here to denote a transitional period between ancient India and the modern era, characterized by political instability, cultural blending, and economic activity.

Question 2: What triggered the formation of the Delhi Sultanate?

Answer: The Delhi Sultanate was formed after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 by Turkic-Afghan invaders, marking the beginning of a series of five foreign dynasties (Mamluks, Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis) ruling northern India. These invasions were driven by India’s reputed wealth, territorial ambitions, and the invaders’ desire to spread their religious beliefs, often through violence.

Question 3: What characterized the Delhi Sultanate’s rule?

Answer: The Delhi Sultanate (13th–16th centuries) was marked by political instability, frequent violent successions (average sultan reign of nine years), and territorial expansion through military campaigns that involved plundering villages, cities, and temples. Sultans like Ala-ud-din Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq led extensive campaigns, financed by plundered wealth, taxes, and slave trade, but faced resistance from regional kingdoms like the Eastern Gangas and Hoysalas.

Question 4: What were some notable actions of Ala-ud-din Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq?

Answer:

Ala-ud-din Khilji (late 13th–early 14th century): Conducted military campaigns across north and central India, plundering Hindu centers like Srirangam and Madurai. His coin bore the inscription “Sikander Sani” (second Alexander), reflecting his ambition.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (14th century): Expanded the Sultanate but made poorly executed decisions, such as shifting the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (causing loss of life) and introducing token currency (copper coins valued as silver/gold), which led to economic chaos due to counterfeiting.

Question 5: Why did the Delhi Sultanate face resistance, and who resisted it?

Answer: The Delhi Sultanate faced resistance due to its aggressive expansion, plundering, and religious intolerance.

Resistant kingdoms included:

Eastern Ganga Kingdom (Odisha, Bengal, Andhra Pradesh): Under Narasimhadeva I, it repelled Sultanate advances.

Hoysalas (Karnataka): Fended off attacks but weakened and were absorbed into the Vijayanagara Empire.

Mewar (Rajasthan): Rana Kumbha resisted through strongholds like Kumbhalgarh Fort.

Bahmani Sultanate and other regional sultanates (Gujarat, Bengal) emerged as independent powers, challenging Delhi’s authority.

Question 6: How did the Vijayanagara Empire rise, and what was its significance?

Answer: The Vijayanagara Empire (14th–17th centuries) was founded by Harihara and Bukka, former governors under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, who rejected Delhi’s authority and established a kingdom in Hampi, Karnataka, inspired by a folklore event symbolizing resilience. It became a major southern power, resisting the Delhi Sultanate and Bahmani Sultanate, and reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya (16th century), who fostered military strength, cultural renaissance, and temple patronage.

Question 7: What were Krishnadevaraya’s contributions to the Vijayanagara Empire?

Answer: Krishnadevaraya (early 16th century) expanded the empire’s dominance in the Deccan, patronized poets and scholars in Sanskrit, Telugu, and Kannada, and composed the Telugu epic Amuktamalyada, which included his ideas on good governance. He

supported temples like Tirupati and Vithhala, and his capital was described by Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes as a thriving, prosperous city comparable to Rome.

Question 8: What led to the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire?

Answer: After Krishnadevaraya’s death in 1529, the empire weakened. In 1565, the Deccan Sultanates defeated Vijayanagara forces at the Battle of Talikota, led by Ramaraya. The city was sacked, temples and buildings destroyed, and civilians

massacred, leading to fragmentation into smaller Nayaka-ruled regions and the empire’s end by the mid-17th century.

Question 9: How did the Mughal Empire begin, and who was Babur?

Answer: The Mughal Empire began in 1526 when Babur, a Turkic-Mongol descendant of Timur, defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat, using gunpowder and artillery. Babur, a cultured yet ruthless conqueror, ended the Delhi Sultanate and established Mughal rule in Delhi, as detailed in his autobiography, Baburnama, which reflects his appreciation for poetry, architecture, and nature alongside his brutal conquests.

Question 10: What defined Akbar’s reign, and how did it differ from earlier rulers?

Answer: Akbar (1556–1605), declared emperor at 13, initially used brutal conquests (e.g., the Chittorgarh massacre) but later adopted tolerance and diplomacy. He abolished the jizya tax, promoted sulh-i kul (peace with all), married Rajput princesses, and appointed Hindu officials, stabilizing the empire through alliances. Unlike Delhi sultans, who relied heavily on military might, Akbar used political strategies to expand and consolidate power.

Question 11: What were Aurangzeb’s policies, and how did they impact the Mughal Empire?

Answer: Aurangzeb (1658–1707), a Sunni Muslim, ruled for 49 years, imposing strict religious policies, reintroducing the jizya and pilgrimage taxes, and banning un-Islamic practices like music. His prolonged Deccan wars depleted the treasury, weakening the empire. His intolerance and rebellions from Rajputs, Sikhs, and others contributed to the Mughal decline after his death.

Question 12: Who were some key figures in resisting Mughal rule?

Answer:

Rani Durgavati (Garha Kingdom): Led 20,000 soldiers and 1,000 elephants against Akbar’s forces in 1564, fighting bravely before taking her own life to avoid capture. Maharana Pratap (Mewar): Resisted Mughal suzerainty, fought at Haldighati

(1576), and used guerrilla warfare with Bhil support. Lachit Borphukan (Ahom Kingdom): Defeated Mughal forces in the Battle of

Saraighat (1671) using terrain knowledge and guerrilla tactics. Guru Tegh Bahadur and Guru Gobind Singh (Sikhs): Resisted religious persecution, with the latter forming the Khalsa to fight Mughal oppression.

Question 13: What was the economic landscape during this period?

Answer: India’s economy was vibrant, driven by agriculture (rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane), artisanal industries (textiles, shipbuilding), and trade networks. Temples acted as economic hubs, supporting markets and infrastructure. The hundi system

facilitated safe trade. However, high taxes (up to half the produce) and famines caused peasant hardship, with wealth concentrated among rulers and merchants.

Question 14: How did administration function under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughals?

Answer:

Delhi Sultanate: Centered on the sultan’s absolute authority, supported by a council of ministers managing taxes, defense, and public affairs.

Mughals: Akbar’s mansabdari system assigned ranks (mansabs) to officers (mansabdars) who maintained troops and were paid through land grants (jagirs). Todar Mal’s revenue system used crop yield surveys to improve tax collection, strengthening the state.

Question 15: How did Indian society show resilience during this period?

Answer: Despite political instability and invasions, Indian society adapted by rebuilding towns, temples, and economies. Cultural traditions blended indigenous and foreign elements, leading to flourishing arts (e.g., Mughal miniature paintings, Vijayanagara

temples). Communities like the Sikhs, Rajputs, and Ahoms resisted oppression, preserving their identity and values.

CHAPTER 3:-THE RISE OF THE MARATHAS-Q&A

EXTRA QUESTION-ANSWERS.

Question 1: Who are the Marathas, and what is their historical significance?

Answer: The Marathas are a group native to the Deccan, with a rich literary history in Marathi since the 12th century. They rose as a powerful political entity in the 17th century under Shivaji, challenging Mughal dominance and establishing a vast empire by the 18^th century. Their resistance to foreign powers and cultural revival laid the foundation for India’s freedom movement.

Question 2: What was the political context in Maharashtra before the rise of the Marathas?

Answer: In the 13th century, Maharashtra was ruled by the Yadava dynasty with Devagiri as its capital. By the early 14th century, the Yadavas were overpowered by the Khilji Sultanate from Delhi, leading to political instability and frequent conflicts among Deccan sultanates, causing hardship for the common people.

Question 3: How did the bhakti movement influence Maratha society?

Answer: Between the 7th and 17th centuries, the bhakti movement emphasized devotion over ritualism. Saints like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram, and Ramdas translated texts like the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita into Marathi, making them accessible. Their focus on social organization and political awareness provided a cultural foundation for the Marathas’ political rise.

Question 4: Who was Shivaji, and how did he begin his journey toward establishing Swarajya?

Answer: Shivaji, born in 1630 to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai, grew up in Pune under his mother’s guidance. At 16, he launched military campaigns, capturing and fortifying neglected forts in the Pune region. His vision of Swarajya (self-rule) encompassed

political, economic, and cultural sovereignty, laying the foundation for the Maratha kingdom.

Question 5: Why was the creation of the Maratha navy significant?

Answer: Shivaji established a navy to secure coastal resources and challenge European naval dominance. Unlike the Bijapur Sultanate or Mughals, who lacked a full-time navy, the Maratha navy protected the west coast, with forts like Sindhudurg. This revolutionary step enabled control over trade routes and resisted European impositions like naval trade passes.

Question 6: How did Shivaji use guerrilla warfare, and what was a notable example?

Answer: Shivaji employed guerrilla warfare, using small, mobile groups with speed, surprise, and terrain knowledge to defeat larger armies. A notable example is the 1659 encounter at Pratapgad, where he killed Afzal Khan of the Bijapur Sultanate in a one-onone meeting and used hidden Maratha forces to rout Khan’s army.

Question 7: What were some of Shivaji’s notable military achievements against the Mughals?

Answer:

Raid on Shaista Khan (1663): Shivaji raided the Mughal nobleman Shaista Khan’s camp at night with few soldiers, forcing Khan to flee after losing fingers.

Sacking of Surat: Shivaji sacked the wealthy Mughal port city of Surat twice, amassing treasure worth nearly one crore rupees, sparing religious sites and charitable figures like Mohandas Pareekh.

Escape from Agra (1666): Under house arrest by Aurangzeb, Shivaji and his son Sambhaji escaped by hiding in gift baskets, outwitting Mughal guards.

Question 8: What was the significance of Shivaji’s coronation and southern conquests?

Answer: In 1674, Shivaji was coronated at Raigad with Vedic rites, taking the title Shri Raja Shiva Chhatrapati and starting the Rajyabhisheka Shaka. His southern conquests (dakshina-digvijaya), including northern Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, gave the Marathas strategic depth against Mughal invasions.

Question 9: How did the Marathas fare after Shivaji’s death in 1680?

Answer: After Shivaji’s death, his son Sambhaji became Chhatrapati but was captured, tortured, and executed by Aurangzeb. Rajaram, the next Chhatrapati, fled to Gingee, continuing resistance. Led by Tarabai, Rajaram’s queen, the Marathas invaded Mughal territories, emerging as a strong contender after Aurangzeb’s death in 1707.

Question 10: How did the Maratha administration evolve under later leaders?

Answer: Under Shivaji, the administration was centralized, with salaried officials and no hereditary posts. After his death, it became decentralized, with regional chiefs and the Peshwa (e.g., Baji Rao I, Nanasahib Peshwa) gaining power. Taxes like chauth (25%) and sardeshmukhi (10%) were levied on provinces, which the Mughals approved via treaties.

Question 11: Who were the key Maratha leaders after Shivaji, and what were their contributions?

Answer:

Baji Rao I and Nanasahib Peshwa: Expanded Maratha control across India, including Lahore and Peshawar.

Mahadji Shinde: Recaptured Delhi in 1771, maintaining Maratha control until the British takeover.

Tarabai: Led Maratha resistance after Rajaram’s death, orchestrating northern invasions.

Ahilyabai Holkar: Ruled Indore for 30 years, built temples (e.g., Kashi Vishwanath), and promoted Maheshwar weaving.

Kanhoji Angre: Strengthened the Maratha navy, challenging European naval supremacy.

Question 12: What was the Maratha military structure, and how did it adapt over time?

Answer: The Maratha forces included infantry, cavalry (bargirs and shiledars), and a navy. Forts were central for strategic control and guerrilla warfare. By the 18th century, leaders like Mahadji Shinde adopted European-style disciplined troops and artillery.

Weapons included swords, lances, guns, and metal tube rockets.

Question 13: How did the Marathas contribute to cultural revival?

Answer: Shivaji promoted Marathi and Sanskrit through works like Rajyavyavaharakosha, reducing Persian loanwords. His saffron flag and temple rebuilding reflected Hindu pride. The Thanjavur Marathas, under rulers like Serfoji II, patronized Carnatic music, Bharatanatyam, and multilingual culture. Serfoji established a printing press and Dhanwantari Mahal for medicine.

Question 14: What role did Maratha women play in the empire’s history?

Answer:

Tarabai: Led Maratha resistance post-Rajaram, invading Mughal territories and preserving independence.

Ahilyabai Holkar: Governed Indore wisely, built infrastructure across India, and revived traditional crafts like Maheshwar weaving.

Question 15: Why did the Maratha Empire decline, and how did the British overtake them?

Answer: Internal disunity among regional chiefs and occasional abuses (e.g., Bengal campaign) weakened the Marathas. The British, with superior organization and technology, defeated them in the three Anglo-Maratha Wars (1755–1818), effectively

taking India from the Marathas more than the Mughals.

CHAPTER 4:- THE COLONIAL ERA IN INDIA

EXTRA QUESTION-ANSWERS.

Question 1: What is colonialism, and what motivated European powers to establish colonies in India?

Answer: Colonialism is the practice of one nation establishing control over another region, often through military conquest, economic exploitation, and cultural imposition, to gain resources, markets, and influence. European powers like Portugal, Britain, France, and the Netherlands were drawn to India for its wealth (spices, textiles, gems), new trade routes, and markets. Political competition among European nations fueled territorial expansion, while religious motives, like converting natives to Christianity, and scientific inquiry also played roles.

Question 2: What was India’s economic and geopolitical standing before the colonial period?

Answer: Before the 16th century, India was a vibrant economic and cultural powerhouse, trading spices, cotton, ivory, and wootz steel with Greeks and Romans. Its geopolitical landscape included regional kingdoms and the Mughal Empire, which the Marathas weakened by the 18th century. India’s wealth and manufacturing, especially textiles, made it a global trade hub.

Question 3: How did the Portuguese establish their presence in India, and what were their key actions?

Answer: The Portuguese arrived in the late 15th century, with Vasco da Gama landing in Calicut in 1498. They captured strategic ports like Goa (1510), which became their colony’s capital, and enforced a cartaz (pass) system for naval trade. Their aggressive

tactics included seizing ships, torturing merchants, and bombarding Calicut. The Goa Inquisition (until 1820) involved forced conversions, temple destruction, and persecution, creating social divisions.

Question 4: What was the Dutch approach to colonization in India, and how did it differ from the Portuguese?

Answer: The Dutch, arriving in the early 17th century, focused on commercial dominance through the Dutch East India Company, establishing trading posts in Surat, Cochin, Nagapattinam, and Masulipatnam. Unlike the Portuguese, who emphasized religious

conversion, the Dutch prioritized the spice trade and displaced the Portuguese in Malabar. Their influence declined after defeat by Travancore’s King Marthanda Varma at the Battle of Colachel (1741).

Question 5: How did the French attempt to colonize India, and what limited their success?

Answer: The French established trading posts at Surat (1688) and Pondicherry (1744), with ambitions to build an empire under Governor-General Dupleix (1742–1754). Dupleix trained Indian sepoys in European military tactics and used indirect rule through puppet rulers. However, the French lost ground to the British in the Carnatic Wars (1746–1763), retaining only Pondicherry and smaller enclaves. Unlike the Portuguese, they rarely intervened in social or religious life, except for the 1748 destruction of Pondicherry’s Vedapurishwaran temple.

Question 6: How did the British East India Company transition from traders to rulers in India?

Answer: Established in 1600 with a royal charter, the English East India Company initially set up trading posts in Surat, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, posing as traders. Through the “divide and rule” strategy, they exploited rivalries among local rulers, offering military support to gain influence. The Battle of Plassey (1757), where Robert Clive secured victory via Mir Jafar’s betrayal, marked their rise as power brokers. The Doctrine of Lapse and subsidiary alliances further expanded their control by annexing princely states and installing British Residents.

Question 7: What was the Doctrine of Lapse, and how did it contribute to British expansion?

Answer: The Doctrine of Lapse, introduced in the 19th century, allowed the British to annex princely states if a ruler died without a natural male heir, disregarding Hindu adoption traditions. This led to the annexation of states like Jhansi, causing resentment and contributing to the 1857 Rebellion. It expanded British territorial control by exploiting succession disputes.

Question 8: What were subsidiary alliances, and how did they function as a colonial strategy?

Answer: Subsidiary alliances involved placing a British Resident in Indian princely courts to “protect” rulers, who funded British troops and ceded foreign relations to the British. Starting with Hyderabad in 1798, this system gave the British control without direct administration costs, creating an “empire on the cheap.” Rulers attempting to break free faced military retaliation, ensuring British dominance.

Question 9: How did British revenue policies lead to famines in India?

Answer: The British imposed harsh revenue collection in regions like Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, demanding high cash taxes regardless of harvest conditions. The Bengal Famine (1769–1772) killed about 10 million people (one-third of the population) due to these policies, exacerbated by crop failures. The Great Famine (1876–1878) and others, with 50–100 million total deaths, were worsened by continued tax demands and minimal relief, as noted by British critics like William Digby and W.W. Hunter.

Question 10: How did British policies impact India’s economy, particularly its manufacturing sector?

Answer: British policies deindustrialized India by imposing heavy duties on Indian textile exports while flooding India with tariff-free British goods. This ruined India’s textile industry, reducing skilled artisans to poverty and forcing them into subsistence agriculture. India’s global GDP share dropped to 5% by Independence. As William Bentinck noted in 1834, “the bones of the cotton weavers are bleaching the plains of India.”

Question 11: How did the British alter India’s governance and legal systems?

Answer: The British dismantled India’s village councils and regional administrative structures, which Charles Metcalfe called “little republics” for their self-sufficiency. They introduced centralized bureaucracies focused on tax collection and order, replacing customary laws with British legal codes. These foreign systems, conducted in English, were expensive and alienated Indians, disrupting centuries-old community governance.

Question 12: How did British educational policies affect Indian society?

Answer: The British replaced traditional Indian schools (pathshalas, madrasas, viharas) with English-medium education, as outlined in Macaulay’s 1835 Minute on Indian Education. Macaulay aimed to create “brown Englishmen” loyal to British interests, dismissing Indian knowledge as inferior. This created an English-educated elite, disconnected from cultural heritage, and sidelined traditional education, causing social divisions.

Question 13: What was the economic impact of British infrastructure projects like railways and telegraphs?

Answer: Railways and telegraphs, funded by Indian taxes, primarily served British interests by transporting raw materials to ports and distributing British goods. They ignored existing trade patterns and facilitated military movements, not public welfare.

Indians bore the administrative and infrastructural costs, effectively funding their own subjugation, as noted by scholars like Dadabhai Naoroji.

Question 14: What were the early resistance movements against British rule, and how did the British respond?

Answer:

Sannyasi-Fakir Rebellion (1770s–1800s): Hindu and Muslim ascetics in Bengal attacked British treasuries due to restrictive land and tax policies. The British labeled them bandits, executed some, and suppressed the rebellion.

Kol Uprising (1831–1832): The Kol tribes in Chota Nagpur resisted land policies favoring outsiders, briefly controlling territory before British forces defeated them.

Santhal Rebellion (1855–1856): Led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, the Santhals rebelled against land encroachments, declaring their own government. The British burned villages and killed thousands, including the leaders.

Indigo Revolt (1859–1862): Bengal peasants resisted forced indigo cultivation, supported by the Bengali press. The British restricted some abuses after planter retaliation.

Question 15: What was the Great Rebellion of 1857, and why was it significant?

Answer: The Great Rebellion of 1857, initially called the “Sepoy Mutiny,” was a widespread uprising against British rule, sparked by sepoy discontent over greased cartridges offending Hindu and Muslim beliefs. Beginning in Meerut, sepoys marched to

Delhi, proclaiming Bahadur Shah Zafar as leader, and captured Kanpur, Lucknow, and Jhansi. British retaliation was brutal, with massacres and village burnings. Though it failed due to lack of unified command, it sowed seeds for India’s freedom movement, leading to the British Crown taking direct control in 1858.

Question 16: Who were the key figures in the 1857 Rebellion, and what were their roles?

Answer:

Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi: Fought to save her kingdom from annexation, escaped a besieged Jhansi, captured Gwalior, and died in battle in 1858, noted as the “best and bravest” rebel.

Begum Hazrat Mahal of Awadh: Led the defense of Lucknow, rejected British surrender offers, and issued a counter-proclamation against Queen Victoria’s promises, fleeing to Nepal.

Nana Saheb and Tantia Tope: Nana Saheb led rebels in Kanpur, while Tantia Tope, his advisor, continued fighting until betrayed and executed in 1859.

Mangal Pandey: Sparked the rebellion by attacking British officers at Barrackpore, leading to his execution and further unrest.

Question 17: What were the cultural and intellectual impacts of British colonialism?

Answer: The British documented India’s geography, ethnic groups, and monuments, initiating archaeology but stealing thousands of cultural artifacts for European museums. Translations of Sanskrit texts, like Charles Wilkins’ Bhagavad Gita (1785), influenced Western thought. However, their flawed racial categorizations and cultural impositions, like Macaulay’s education policy, disconnected Indians from their heritage, creating lasting social divisions.

Question 18: How did the British portray colonial rule, and how did Indian perspectives differ?

Answer: The British claimed a “civilizing mission,” as seen in Macaulay’s education policy and the painting The East Offering Its Riches to Britannia, depicting voluntary wealth transfer. Indian scholars like Dadabhai Naoroji, in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901), highlighted exploitation, arguing that British policies caused famines and deindustrialization. Leaders like Begum Hazrat Mahal distrusted British promises, viewing colonial rule as oppressive.

CHAPTER 5:- UNIVERSAL FRANCHISE AND INDIA’S ELECTORAL SYSTEM

EXTRA QUESTION-ANSWERS.

Question 1: What is universal adult franchise, and why is it significant in India’s democracy?

Answer: Universal adult franchise means every Indian citizen aged 18 and above has the right to vote, regardless of caste, creed, race, religion, gender, education, or income (Article 326 of the Constitution). It is significant because it ensures equal participation in democracy, allowing all citizens to choose their representatives and shape the nation’s future. As Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar noted in 1949, India’s adoption of this principle was a bold experiment, given its diverse population and low literacy rate (14% in 1947, 8% for women).

Question 2: How did India’s voting age change, and what was the context of this decision?

Answer: In 1988, India lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 through the 61^st Constitutional Amendment. This move expanded the electorate, reflecting trust in younger citizens’ ability to participate in democracy. It aligned with India’s commitment to universal franchise, ensuring broader representation in a diverse and youthful nation.

Question 3: How did India’s franchise system differ before and after Independence?

Answer: Before Independence, only 13% of Indians could vote, with franchise restricted by property, education, or gender criteria. Post-Independence, India adopted universal adult franchise from the first general election (1951–1952), granting voting rights to all adults above 18, irrespective of any discriminatory factors, making it a pioneering democratic move globally.

Question 4: How did India’s approach to women’s voting rights compare globally?

Answer: India granted women the right to vote from the outset of its Constitution in 1950, ahead of many nations like Switzerland (1971). Rooted in progressive constitutional vision and India’s ancient democratic traditions, this ensured gender equality in voting, unlike countries where women fought prolonged battles for suffrage.

Question 5: What is the role of the Election Commission of India (ECI) in managing elections?

Answer: The ECI, established in 1950, is an independent constitutional body responsible for conducting free and fair elections to the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies, and the offices of the President and Vice President. It manages voter

registration, polling, and result declaration, ensuring fairness through measures like the Model Code of Conduct (MCC).

Question 6: What types of elections does the ECI oversee, and how do they differ from local elections?

Answer: The ECI oversees national elections (Lok Sabha), state elections (Legislative Assemblies), and elections for the President and Vice President. Local elections (gram panchayats and urban bodies) are managed by State Election Commissions, but all

follow universal adult franchise principles.

Question 7: What are the key features of India’s electoral process for Lok Sabha and State Assemblies?

Answer: The process involves:

Voter Registration: Citizens must be registered in their constituency to vote.

Polling: Voters mark their choice on electronic voting machines (EVMs) or select NOTA (None of The Above). The process includes voter ID checks, inking fingers, and verifying votes via VVPAT (Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail).

Counting: Ballots are counted securely, and the candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins (first-past-the-post system).

Scale: In 2024, 880 million voters were eligible for 543 Lok Sabha constituencies.

Question 8: What accessibility measures has the ECI introduced to enhance voter participation?

Answer: The ECI ensures inclusivity by:

• Setting up polling stations in remote areas, including one for a single voter.
• Introducing home voting for the elderly and disabled in 2024.
• Offering postal voting for specific groups.
• Providing assistive technologies like braille-enabled voter cards, wheelchair access, and app-based assistance requests (e.g., ramps).

Question 9: What is the Model Code of Conduct (MCC), and what are its key elements?

Answer: The MCC ensures free and fair elections by setting rules for candidates and parties. Key elements include:

• Prohibiting the ruling party from using government resources (e.g., announcing new schemes) to influence voters.
• Requiring candidates to exercise restraint and avoid abusive language or voter manipulation.
• Ensuring peaceful election conduct.

Question 10: What is the NOTA option, and why is it significant?

Answer: NOTA (None Of The Above) allows voters to reject all candidates if dissatisfied, without affecting the election outcome. It serves as a democratic tool to express discontent and demand better candidate choices, enhancing voter agency.

Question 11: How does the first-past-the-post system work in Lok Sabha elections?

Answer: In the first-past-the-post system, the candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins, even without a majority (e.g., Gurnat won with 12 out of 33 votes in a class election). This system applies to Lok Sabha and State Assembly elections,

determining representatives based on plurality.

Question 12: How are Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha elections different?

Answer:

Lok Sabha: Direct elections where voters choose MPs from 543 constituencies using the first-past-the-post system.

Rajya Sabha: Indirect elections where elected members of State Legislative Assemblies and Union Territories vote for MPs, using a proportional representation system with a single transferable vote.

Question 13: How is the President of India elected, and who participates?

Answer: The President is elected through an indirect election using the single transferable vote system. Participants include elected members of the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and State Legislative Assemblies. This ensures representation of both central and state governments.

Question 14: What challenges does India’s electoral system face due to its diversity and scale?

Answer: India’s large population (880 million voters in 2024), vast area (six times larger than France), and geographic diversity (e.g., remote regions) pose logistical challenges.

The ECI addresses these through mobile polling stations, technology (EVMs, VVPAT), and accessibility measures to ensure no voter is excluded.

Question 15: Why did India adopt universal franchise despite low literacy rates in 1947?

Answer: Despite a 14% literacy rate (8% for women) in 1947, Constitution makers chose universal franchise to ensure inclusivity, empower all citizens, and build a participatory democracy. They believed in the common person’s ability to shape governance, reflecting India’s democratic ethos.

CHAPTER 6- THE PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM: LEGISLATURE AND EXECUTIVE

EXTRA QUESTION-ANSWERS.

Question 1: What is the significance of the Indian Constitution in establishing the parliamentary system?

Answer: The Indian Constitution, adopted after Independence, is a comprehensive document that establishes the parliamentary system, ensuring power is shared, decisions are debated, and leaders are accountable. It guarantees universal adult franchise,

enabling citizens to elect Lok Sabha representatives who form the government, reflecting the people’s consent.

Question 2: How does the Indian Parliament function as the supreme legislative body?

Answer: The Parliament, comprising elected representatives, makes laws, oversees government activities, and ensures executive accountability. It consists of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, with the President as the nominal head. It upholds constitutional values like federalism, separation of powers, and fundamental rights through lawmaking and oversight.

Question 3: What are the key differences between the old and new Parliament buildings?

Answer: The old Parliament (Samvidhan Sadan), built in the 1920s, hosted the Constituent Assembly and served for over seven decades. The new Parliament (Sansad Bhavan), constructed recently, addresses modern needs like increased capacity,

advanced technology, sustainability, and safety to accommodate India’s growing legislative demands.

Question 4: Why did India adopt a bicameral legislature, and how does the Rajya Sabha differ from the Lok Sabha?

Answer: India adopted a bicameral system to balance federalism, ensuring representation of both national and state interests. The Lok Sabha is directly elected by citizens via universal adult franchise, while the Rajya Sabha, elected indirectly by state

assemblies, uses proportional representation with a single transferable vote, reflecting state interests.

Question 5: What are the roles of the presiding officers in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha?

Answer: The Lok Sabha’s Speaker, elected by its members, conducts sessions, maintains discipline, and ensures rule adherence. The Rajya Sabha is presided over by the Vice President, who acts as its Chairperson, ensuring orderly debates and discussions in the Council of States.

Question 6: What is the significance of the Sengol in the new Lok Sabha?

Answer: The Sengol, a gold-plated silver sceptre from the Chola period, symbolizes righteous and just rule. Handed to Nehru in 1947, it is now placed near the Speaker’s chair in the new Lok Sabha, representing dharma and justice in governance.

Question 7: How does the Parliament ensure accessibility of discussions to diverse linguistic groups?

Answer: The Parliament provides simultaneous interpretation in 18 languages, including Hindi, English, Assamese, Bengali, and recently added languages like Urdu and Sanskrit. This ensures MPs and citizens from diverse linguistic backgrounds can engage in and understand parliamentary proceedings.

Question 8: What are the components of the Union Executive, and how are they related to the Parliament?

Answer: The Union Executive comprises the President, Vice President, and Council of Ministers led by the Prime Minister. The Council, chosen from MPs of both houses, is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha, implementing laws and shaping policies under parliamentary oversight.

Question 9: What are the main legislative functions of the Parliament?

Answer: The Parliament’s legislative functions include:

• Constitutional Functions: Electing the President and Vice President, amending the Constitution.
• Lawmaking: Passing bills into acts, as seen with the Right to Education Act (2009).
• Executive Accountability: Holding ministers accountable through mechanisms like Question Hour.
• Financial Accountability: Approving and monitoring government expenditure via the annual budget.

Question 10: How does a bill become an act, as exemplified by the Right to Education Act (RTE)?

Answer: A bill, like the RTE (2009), starts as a draft proposed in either house (e.g., Rajya Sabha). It undergoes committee review, debates, and modifications. After approval in both houses, it receives the President’s assent, becoming an act. The RTE mandated free education for children aged 6–14.

Question 11: What is the role of the Question Hour in ensuring executive accountability?

Answer: The Question Hour, typically the first hour of a parliamentary session, allows MPs to question ministers about government policies and actions. This ensures the Executive justifies its decisions, promoting transparency and accountability, often through special committees with diverse MPs.

Question 12: How does the Parliament incorporate cultural elements like poetry and humor?

Answer: MPs use poetry and humor to enrich debates, as seen in Nirmala Sitharaman’s 2025 Budget verse from Tirukkural or Sushma Swaraj’s 2011 poetic critique. These elements make discussions engaging, reflecting India’s cultural diversity while addressing serious issues.

Question 13: What is the role of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers in the Executive?

Answer: The Prime Minister, appointed by the President as the majority party/coalition leader, leads the Council of Ministers, coordinates ministries, advises the President, and shapes national policies. The Council, supported by civil servants, implements laws and runs the government, accountable to the Lok Sabha.

Question 14: How does the Judiciary ensure checks and balances in India’s democracy?

Answer: The Judiciary, through courts, interprets laws, resolves disputes, and safeguards constitutional principles. It ensures the Legislature and Executive operate within constitutional limits, striking down unconstitutional laws or actions, thus maintaining the separation of powers and protecting citizens’ rights.

Question 15: How does the structure of state legislatures mirror the Union Parliament?

Answer: State legislatures, like the Union Parliament, have a legislative assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and, in six states (e.g., Karnataka), an upper house (Vidhan Parishad). They enact state-specific laws, oversee state executives, and approve budgets, reflecting the Union’s legislative-executive structure.

Question 16: What are the challenges to the effective functioning of India’s legislatures?

Answer: Challenges include low productivity (e.g., Rajya Sabha’s 35.75% productivity in 2018), absenteeism, non-cooperative conduct, disrupted Question Hours, and poorquality debates. Additionally, concerns about MPs with criminal cases and biased debates undermine public trust and legislative efficiency.

Question 17: How can citizens strengthen India’s parliamentary democracy?

Answer: Citizens can strengthen democracy by staying informed, participating in public debates (e.g., via digital platforms), engaging with representatives, and voting responsibly. As Atal Bihari Vajpayee emphasized, enduring democracy requires active citizen involvement to ensure policies reflect public interest.

CHAPTER 7-FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

EXTRA QUESTION-ANSWERS.

Question 1: What are factors of production, and why are they important?

Answer: Factors of production are the resources or inputs used to produce goods and services, including land, labour, capital, and entrepreneurship, with technology as a facilitator. They are crucial for economic growth and productivity, as efficient use of these factors, as noted by Bibek Debroy, drives India’s development.

Question 2: What does the factor ‘land’ include in economics?

Answer: In economics, ‘land’ encompasses natural resources such as geographical land, soil, forests, water, air, sunlight, minerals, oil, and natural gas. Businesses either purchase land or pay rent to use it for production, as seen in Ratna’s restaurant leasing land.

Question 3: What is labour, and how does human capital enhance it?

Answer: Labour refers to the physical and mental effort involved in production, performed by workers like carpenters or teachers. Human capital enhances labour through specialized skills, knowledge, and expertise gained via education, training, and healthcare, improving efficiency and productivity.

Question 4: How do education and healthcare contribute to human capital development?

Answer: Education provides knowledge and skills, from basic literacy to specialized fields like civil engineering, enabling workers to solve complex problems. Healthcare supports cognitive development and physical well-being, ensuring regular school attendance for students and higher productivity for workers.

Question 5: How do social and cultural influences shape human capital?

Answer: Cultural values like Japan’s kaizen (continuous improvement) or Germany’s emphasis on punctuality and quality enhance human capital by fostering discipline and excellence. These traits, rooted in societal norms, contribute to high productivity and global competitiveness in industries.

Question 6: What challenges does India face in developing human capital?

Answer: Despite progress, India faces challenges like low adult literacy rates (85% for males, 70% for females in 2023) and skill shortages. Events like Shivay’s dropout due to financial issues highlight how lack of education access limits human capital development, affecting productivity.

Question 7: What is the significance of India’s demographic

dividend?

Answer: With 65% of India’s population below 35 years (Economic Survey 2024), the demographic dividend offers economic growth potential through a young, productive workforce. Quality education, health, and training are essential to leverage this for business growth and improved living standards.

Question 8: How does India’s ancient skill heritage contribute to production?

Answer: Ancient Indian skills, guided by shilpa shastras and traditions like Vishwakarma puja, emphasized excellence in crafts like sculpture and stitched shipbuilding. These skills, passed across generations, blended art (kala) and knowledge (vidya), enhancing production quality.

Question 9: What is capital, and how do businesses acquire it?

Answer: Capital includes monetary resources and durable assets like machinery, tools, and buildings used in production. Businesses acquire capital through personal savings, loans (e.g., Ratna’s bank loan), or, for large firms, raising funds via the stock market by selling shares.

Question 10: What is entrepreneurship, and how does it drive production?

Answer: Entrepreneurship involves starting a business or creating innovative solutions, as exemplified by J.R.D. Tata’s ventures like Tata Airlines. Entrepreneurs combine land, labour, and capital, take risks, and drive innovation, creating jobs and benefiting society.

Question 11: How does technology enhance production processes?

Answer: Technology, the application of scientific knowledge, improves efficiency and innovation. Examples include UPI for payments, GPS for logistics, and drones for farming. Platforms like SWAYAM and National Career Service provide access to education and jobs, reducing barriers.

Question 12: How are the factors of production interconnected?

Answer: Land, labour, capital, entrepreneurship, and technology complement each other. For instance, agriculture is labour-intensive, while chip manufacturing is capital-intensive. Missing factors, like labour shortages, halt production, but technology (e.g., 3D printing) can adjust factor proportions.

Question 13: What are supply chain challenges in production?

Answer: Supply chains, involving resources, individuals, and technology, face disruptions from reliance on distant sources, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic. Such disruptions halt production, emphasizing the need for local sourcing and resilient supply  networks.

Question 14: What responsibilities do businesses have toward factors of production?

Answer: Businesses must use natural resources sustainably to avoid pollution (e.g., leather factory waste), ensure fair worker compensation, provide safe workplaces, and invest in training. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) laws in India (2014) mandate 2% profit spending on social and environmental initiatives.

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